C++ Atomic Types and Operations

ISO/IEC JTC1 SC22 WG21 N2427 = 07-0297 - 2007-10-03

Hans-J. Boehm, [email protected], [email protected]
Lawrence Crowl, [email protected], [email protected]

This document is a revision of N2393 = 07-0253 - 2007-09-10.

Introduction
    Rationale
    Goals
Discussion of Design
    A Library API
    Atomic Types, Operations, and Volatile
    C and C++ Interoperability
    Memory Ordering
    Consistency
    Fences
    Dependent Memory Order
    Lock-Free Property
    Flag Type and Operations
    Integral and Address Types
    Atomic Operations
    Generic Types
    Implementability
Prior Approaches
Changes to the Standard
    Chapter 17 Library introduction [library]
    Chapter 20 General utilities library [utilities]
    20.1 Concepts [utility.concepts]
    20.1.2 Comparisons [concept.comparison]
    20.1.5 Copy and move [concept.copymove]
    Chapter 29 Atomics library [atomics]
    29.1 Order and Consistency [atomics.order]
    29.2 Lock-Free Property [atomics.lockfree]
    29.3 Flag Type and Operations [atomics.flag]
    29.4 Integral and Address Types [atomics.types]
    29.5 Operations [atomics.operations]
    29.6 Generic Types [atomics.generic]
    29.7 Synopsis [atomics.synopsis]
Implementation
    Notes on the Presentation
    Implementation Files
    C++0x Features
    Memory Order
    Flag Type and Operations
    Implementation Macros
    Lock-Free Macro
    Integral and Address Types
        Boolean
        Address
        Integers
        Integer Typedefs
        Characters
    Template Types
        Fully Generic Type
        Pointer Partial Specialization
        Integral Full Specializations
    C++ Core Functions
    C Core Macros
    C++ Methods
    Implementation Header Cleanup
    Standard Headers
Examples of Use
    Flag
    Lazy Initialization
    Integer
    Event Counter
    List Insert
    Update
    Main

Introduction

We propose standard atomic types and operations. In addition to normative wording for the interface, we present a minimal conforming implementation and example uses of the interface.

Rationale

The traditional shared-memory notion that every store is instantly visible to all threads induces an unacceptable performance loss on modern systems. Therefore programmers must have a mechanism to indicate when stores in one thread should be communicated to another.

Specifically, a program that wishes to communicate the fact that a particular piece of data prepared by one thread is ready to be examined by another thread, needs a shared variable flag, that both:

• Allows atomic accesses, in the sense that concurrent reads and writes are allowed and that the reads result in only one of the assigned values and never undefined behavior.
• Ensures that any ordinary data written before the flag is set (i.e. the prepared data) is seen correctly by another thread after it sees a set flag.

Although the second aspect is often glossed over, it is usually not automatic with modern hardware and compilers, and is just as important as the first in ensuring correctness.

In POSIX, this communication is achieved by calling certain functions, particularly mutex lock and unlock. While mutexes are adequate for many applications, there is a significant need for finer-grained atomic operations:

Lock-free concurrent data structures

Lock-free concurrent data structures are difficult to design and implement correctly. As such, there is a significant need for programmers capable of doing so to write portably, and for that they need standards.

Inter-thread memory synchronization

Occasionally synchronization with locks offers insufficient performance, and other, more specific idioms suffice.

Goals

We had several goals for our design. Each had significant impact on the details.

• Provide the primitives critical to inter-thread memory synchronization.
• Provide the primitives critical to effective lock-free algorithms.
• Provide a very high degreee of C and C++ interoperability.
• Cover the common range of existing hardware primitives.
• Expose those hardware primitives efficiently to programmers, that is, the design should minimize overhead.
• Provide a syntax that reduces errors.
• Support generic programming.

Discussion of Design

While our proposal is based on existing practice, that practice is somewhat fragmented, so some design choices may not be obvious. In this section, we discuss our choices and their reasoning.

A Library API

We propose to add atomic types and operations purely as a library API. In practice, for C++, this API would have to be implemented largely with either compiler intrinsics or assembly code. (As such, this proposal should be implemented by compiler vendors, not library vendors, much as the exception facilities are implemented by compiler vendors.) For C, a compiler implementation is required for the type-generic macros.

Atomic Types, Operations, and Volatile

We propose atomic types rather than atomic operations on general-purpose types. Doing so enforces a single synchronization protocol for all operations on an object. Using two protocols simultaneously will result in synchronization failure.

We chose to specify atomic types with conventional type names rather than modify the volatile type qualifier for concurrency. The volatile type qualifier has a long history within C and C++, and changing its meaning is both risky and unnecessary. In addition, the existing meaning of volatile, "may be modified by external agents", is somewhat orthogonal to "may be modified concurrently by the program". See N2016 Should volatile Acquire Atomicity and Thread Visibility Semantics? for a more complete discussion. As a consequence, objects of atomic type may also be volatile qualified. Compilers may optimize some non-volatile atomic operations, where they would not be able to optimize volatile operations.

C and C++ Interoperability

The proposal defines the atomic types as C++ standard-layout structs. In C, these would be simply opaque types. Headers common to both C and C++ use exactly the same syntax to declare atomic variables.

Furthermore, the proposal defines the C++ atomic types such that the static initialization syntax can be identical to C aggregate initialization syntax. That is, atomic variables can be initialized in common headers as well.

The core atomic operations are free functions that take pointers to atomic types. Programmers use the same syntax for these operations in both C and C++. That is, a header included from both C and C++ can provide inline functions that operate on atomic types.

The proposal defines the core functions as overloaded functions in C++ and as type-generic macros in C. This approach helps programmers avoid changing code when an atomic type changes size.

Because free functions are occasionally clumsy, the proposal additionally provides member operators and member functions so that C++ programmers may use a more concise syntax.

Memory Ordering

Synchronization operations in the memory model (N2052, N2138, N2171, N2176, N2177, N2300, N2392) may be either acquire or release operations, or both. These operations govern the communication of non-atomic stores between threads. A release operation ensures that prior memory operations become visible to a thread performing subsequent acquire operation on the same object.

Rather than have atomic operations implicitly provide both acquire and release semantics, we choose to complicate the interface by adding explicit ordering specifications to various operations. Many comparable packages do not, and instead provide only a single version of operations, like compare-and-swap, which implicitly include a full memory fence.

Unfortunately, the extra ordering constraint introduced by the single version is almost never completely necessary. For example, an atomic increment operation may be used simply to count the number of times a function is called, as in a profiler. This requires atomicity, but no ordering constraints. And on many architectures (PowerPC, ARM, Itanium, Alpha, though not X86), the extra ordering constraints are at least moderately expensive.

The proposal defines an enumeration that enables detailed specification of the memory order for every operation.

Consistency

A strict interpretation of acquire and release yields a fairly weak consistency model, which allows threads to have a different notion of the order of writes. For stronger consistency, this proposal destinguishes between an operation with acquire and release semantics and an operation with sequentially consistent semantics. See N2177, Sequential Consistency for Atomics.

The member operators provide no mechanism for specifying memory order enumeration, and so they have only the strongest synchronization. This default is not an undue burden because using weaker synchronization requires considerable thought. Any extra syntactic burden is dwarfed by the semantic burden.

Program auditors can search for uses of the memory order enumeration to identify code that uses syncronization models that are weaker than sequentially consistent.

Fences

It is also unclear how a convention requiring full global memory fences would properly interact with an interface that supported simple atomic loads and stores. Here a full memory fence would generally multiply the cost by a large factor. (The current gcc interface does not seem to support simple atomic loads and stores explicitly, which makes it unclear how to support e.g. lock-based emulation, or architectures on which the relevant loads and stores are not implicitly atomic.)

There are two possible approaches to specifying ordering constraints:

• Have the programmer provide explicit memory fences/barriers, perhaps most usefully in a way that is analogous to the SPARC membar instructions.
• Associate the ordering semantics with operations. The closest hardware analog for this is probably Itanium, though we carry this through more consistently.

Both approaches appear to have their merits. We chose the latter for reasons described in N2176.

Some architectures provide fences that are limited to loads or stores. We have, so far, not included them, since it seems to be hard to find cases in which both:

• Such limited ordering constraints are useful and not excessively brittle.
• They actually result in a performance benefit over the more general constraint.

However, we have provided per-variable fence operations, which are semantically modeled as read-modify-write operations. Such fences enable programmers to conditinalize memory synchronization, which can substantially improve performance. See N2153 A simple and efficient memory model for weakly-ordered architectures for motivating examples and the Lazy Initialization example for an use of the proposed syntax.

We expect that implementations that have hardware fences will use such operations to implement the language fences. See N2362 Converting Memory Fences to N2324 Form, for a discussion of the issues and approaches to converting from existing practice of global fences to the per-variable fences in this proposal.

Dependent Memory Order

Most architectures provide additional ordering guarantees if one memory operation is dependent on another. In fact, these are critical for efficient implementation of languages like Java.

For C++, there is near-universal agreement that it would be nice to have some such guarantees. The fundamental issues are:

• Compilers may remove or change data and/or control dependencies.
• Detailed guarantees vary across architectures.

See papers N2359 C++ Dependency Ordering: Atomics, N2360 C++ Dependency Ordering: Memory Model, and N2361 C++ Dependency Ordering: Function Annotation for exploration of these issues.

Lock-Free Property

In some cases, both the decision to use a lock-free algorithm, and sometimes the choice of lock-free algorithm, depends on the availability of underlying hardware primitives. In other cases, e.g. when dealing with asynchronous signals, it may be important to know that operations like compare-and-swap are really lock-free, because a lock-based emulation might result in deadlock.

The proposal defines feature queries to determine whether or not operations are lock-free. We provide two kinds of feature queries, compile-time preprocessor macros and run-time functions. To facilitate optimal storage use, the proposal supplies feature macros that indicates general lock-free status of integral and address atomic types. The run-time function provide per-object information.

The proposal provides run-time lock-free query functions rather than compile-time constants because subsequent implementations of a platform may upgrade locking operations with lock-free operations, so it is common for systems to abstract such facilities behind dynamic libraries, and we wish to leave that possiblility open. Furthermore, we recommend that implementations without hardware atomic support use that technique.

The proposal provides lock-free query functions on individual objects rather than whole types to permit unavoidably misaligned atomic variables without penalizing the performance of aligned atomic variables.

Because consistent use of operations requires that all operations on a type must use the same protocol, all operations are lock-free or none of them are. That is, the lock-free property applies to whole objects, not individual operations.

To facilitate inter-process communication via shared memory, it is our intent that lock-free operations also be address-free. That is, atomic operations on the same memory location via two different addresses will communicate atomically. The implementation shall not depend on any per-process state. While such a definition is beyond the scope of the standard, a clear statement of our intent will enable a portable expression of class of a programs already extant.

Flag Type and Operations

The proposal includes a very simple atomic flag type, providing two primary operations, test-and-set and clear. This type is the minimum hardware-implemented type needed to conform to this standard. The remaining types can be emulated with the atomic flag, though with less than ideal properties. Few programmers should be using this type.

We considered adding a wait operation in this proposal, but ultimately rejected it because pure busy waiting has pathological performance characteristics on multi-programmed machines and because doing better requires interaction with the operating system scheduler, which seems inappropriate to a processor-level facility.

Integral and Address Types

The proposal includes a full set of integral atomic types and an address atomic type.

This proposal includes atomic integral types smaller than a machine word, even though many architectures do not have such operations. For machines that implement a word-based compare-and-swap operation, the effect of operations can be achieved by loading the containing word, modifying the sub-word in place, and performing a compare-and-swap on the containing word. In the event that no compare-and-swap is available, the implementation may need to either implement smaller types with larger types or use locking algorithms. Using the same size for the atomic type as its base type eases effort required to port existing code, e.g. code using __sync.

Atomic Operations

The simplest atomic operations are load and store.

There are times when one wishes to store a new value, but also load the old value. An atomic load followed by an atomic store is not an atomic sequence, so we provide an atomic swap operation that does a combined load and store atomically.

We also provide the common fetch-and-modify operations. The fetch-and-modify functions return the original stored value. The original stored value is required for fetch-and-or and fetch-and-and because there is no means to compute to the original stored value from the new value and the modifying argument. In contrast to the functions, the fetch-and-modify assignment operators return the new value. We do this for consistency with normal assignment operators. Unlike normal C++ assignment operators, though, the atomic assignments return values rather than references, which is like C. The reason is that another thread might intervene between an assignment and a subsequent read. Rather than introduce this classic parallel programming bug, we return a value.

The normal signed integral addition operations have undefined behavior in the event of an overflow. For atomic variables, this undefined behavior introduces significant burden because there is in general no way to pre-test for overflow. Rather than leave overflow undefined, we recognize the defacto behavior of modern systems and define atomic fetch-and-add (-subtract) to use two's-complement arithmetic. We are aware of no implementation of C++ for which this definition is a problem.

The compare-and-swap operation seems to be the minimum general-purpose synchronization primitive. It appears to be both necessary and sufficient for most interesting lock-free algorithms. The compare-and-swap operations may fail spuriously. That is, the stored value may be known to be equal to the expected value, and yet the operation fails to swap. We permit this failure for two reasons. First, it appears unavoidable for load-locked store-conditional implementations. Second, hardware memory switches may prefer to fail some operations to ensure overall machine performance.

The compare-and-swap operations replace the expected value with the found value in the event that the found value does not match the expected value. The intent of the design is to set up a compare-and-swap loop for the next iteration. The reason for this design is that:

• Recovering from spurious failure requires a loop.
• Setting up the loop for the next iteration requires the least syntax in user code.
• The more comprehensive operation subsumes the two hardware variants of compare and swap. Some architectures (e.g. SPARC) return the mismatched value in hardware, and it is more efficient to pass that back up rather than artificially introduce another atomic load. Architectures that don't provide the mismatched value must do a subsequent load. Likewise some architectures do not set conditions (e.g. SPARC) and those will need to insert a comparison.
• Compilers will be able to examine the compilation context and remove any unnecessary overhead for the relatively rare cases where a loop is not needed.

Unlike other operations, the compare-and-swap operations have two memory synchronization order parameters. The first is for operations that succeed; the second is for those that fail. The reason for this pair of specifications is that there are several circumstances in which the failure case can have substantially weaker, and substantially cheaper, synchronization. However, for sequential consistency, full synchronization is required.

Generic Types

Generic atomic types provide significant benefits:

• They ease type-safe use of atomic pointers.
• They ease the process of making atomic version of user-defined types.
• They enable generic algorithms, such as lock-free pointer-based queues.

The generic atomic type has a partial specialization for pointers (derived from the atomic address type), and full specializations for integral types (derived from the atomic integrals).

The primary problem with a generic atomic template is that effective use of machine operations requires that their parameter types are trivially copy assignable and bitwise equality comparable.

Furthermore, parameter types that are not also statically initializable and trivially destructable may be difficult to use.

In the present language, there is no mechanism to require these properties of a type parameter. Roland Schwarz suggests using a template union to enfore POD type parameters. Unfortunately, that approach also prevents the derivation of specializations of atomic for the types above, which is unacceptable. Furthermore, Lois Goldthwaite proposes generalizing unions to permit non-POD types in N2248 Toward a More Perfect Union. We believe that concepts are a more appropriate mechanism to enforce this restriction, and so we have proposed the concepts and concept maps necessary for safe use of generic atomics. The burden on programmers using generic atomics is to declare that types passes as template parameters are in fact bitwise equality comparable. The proposed mechanisms will infer trivially copy assignable types.

The intent is that vendors will specialize a fully-general locking implementation of a generic atomic template with implementations using hardware primitives when those primitives are applicable. This specialization can be accomplished by defining a base template with the size and alignment of the parameter type as additional template parameters, and then specializing on those two arguments.

Implementability

We believe that there is ample evidence for implementability.

The Intel/gcc __sync intrinsics provide evidence for compiler implementability of the proposed interface.

(We do not advocate standardizing these intrisics as is. They provide far less control over memory ordering than we advocated above. For example, they provide no way to atomically increment a counter without imposing unnecessary ordering constraints. The lack of appropriate ordering control appears to already have resulted in implementation shortcuts, e.g. gcc does not implement __sync_synchronize() as a full memory barrier on X86, in spite of the documentation. We believe a number of issues were not fully understood when that design was developed, and it could could greatly benefit from another iteration at this stage.)

Other packages, particularly Boehm's atomic_ops package provide evidence of efficient implementability over a range of architectures.

The remaining implementation issue is the burden on implementors to produce a minimally conforming implementation. The minimum hardware support required is the atomic test-and-set and clear operations that form the basis of the atomic flag type. This proposal includes an example implementation based on that minimal hardware support, and thus shows the vendor work required.

Prior Approaches

This proposal results from experience with many approaches. For brevity, we address only those approaches with formal proposals before the C++ standards committee.

N1875 presented an atomic statement, which would require the compiler to select the appropriate atomic operations. We chose to abandon this approach because:

• The non-atomic evaluations within the atomic block were less than obvious.
• The atomic block syntax was too invitingly simple for the level of skill required to use it correctly.
• The atomic block syntax seems far more appropriate to express general atomic memory transactions. It is premature to standardize those at this point.

N2047 presented a template-based C++ library of atomic types layered on top of a C library of atomic operations on plain integral types. We chose to abandon this approach because:

• The template-based approach severely limits interoperability with C.
• The proposal had both "guaranteed atomic" and "possibly emulated" versions of atomic types, which appears to have insufficient expressive power to warrant the added complexity. It was originally designed in part to allow for access to hardware-provided atomic load and store operations on platforms that do not provide hardware provided compare-and-swap, a property not shared by the current proposal. Our current feeling is that such platforms will be rare enough by 2010 that this property is not a major consideration.
• The distinction between wait-free and lock-free had insufficient user support and use cases.
• The C-level approach failed to identify concurrently accessed data at the point of declaration, and made it too easy to access such data with non-atomic primitives.

N2145 introduced the basic approach adopted in this proposal.

• There are atomic types, with atomic operations on them.
• The operations include synchronization semantics.
• There are a set of primitive types in common to both C and C++.
• There were definitional weaknesses in the proposal due to an overly-strong definition of POD.

N2153 proposes a fence-based memory model.

• There are atomic types, with atomic operations on them.
• The operations include synchronization semantics.
• There are global fences.
• There is some discussion of load-dependent memory order.

N2195 presents a lower level interface than that of N2145. N2195 deviates from the previous proposals in the following major areas:

• Absence of feature test macros or functions.
• Absence of a dedicated enumerated set of atomic types.
• Absence of a high-level C++ API (the std::atomic<T> class template).
• Inclusion of an acquire+release ordering constraint.
• Passing the constraint as a first argument instead of using several functions or macros with the appropriate suffix.
• Introduction of bi-directional fences as proposed in N2153.
• Additional requirements on the ordered constraint that enable the programmer to achieve sequential consistency and CCCC (cache-coherent casual consistency).

N2334 derives from N2145, but was refined in several areas.

• The synchronization specification has changed from a part of the function name to a function parameter. (Adopted from N2195.) The change simplifies the specification and simplifies the programming of generic algorithms. Its major cost is that optimizers will need to do constant parameter propagation to obtain full performance. We feel this capability is common enough in modern compilers to not be an excessive burden.
• We have split the "ordered" synchronization primitive into two parts, "acquire-release" and "sequentially-consistent". This split provides finer control over synchronization. (Adopted from N2195.)
• We have added per-variable fence operations, consistent with the updated concurrency model. These fences were motivated by N2153, but are not isomorphic to them. In particular, N2153 provides global fences but N2334 provides per-variable fences.)
• We have updated the proposal to include the new character types from N2249 New Character Types in C++.
• We have addressed the definitional weaknesses with respect to POD-ness with the help of the following papers.
  • N2215 Initializer lists (Rev.3)
  • N2230 POD's Revisited; Resolving Core Issue 568 (Revison 3)
  • N2235 Generalized Constant Expressions — Revision 5
  • N2326 Defaulted and Deleted Functions

N2381 is primarily a set of editorial changes to N2324, but with the following substantive changes.

• We included summaries of more prior work.
• We moved some discussion of specifying ordering constraints to N2176.
• We added references to the work on load-dependent ordering.
• We added a discussion of the design for compare-and-swap.
• We added a second synchronization parameter to compare-and-swap to specify the synchronization semantics for a failed comparison.
• We removed the implicit conversion operators.

N2393 is a substantial editorial rewrite of N2381, with primary emphasis on providing normative wording. Changes are generally not substantive, but with the following exceptions.

• We split our use of "scalar" into "integral and address" to correctly indicate the set of atomic types. We have split the lock-free property macro to correspond.
• We add the concepts necessary to for the atomic generics to behave properly.
• We have eliminated one unspportable requirement on ordering, replacing it by a non-normative encouragement.
• We have eliminated one requirement as a result of simplification in the memory model.

N2427 is a minor change to N2393 correcting a weakness in the interaction between concepts, booleans, and hardware compare-and-swap.

• We changed BitwiseEqualityComparable to AtomicComparable.
• We changed AtomicComparable to not be a refinement of EqualityComparable.

Changes to the Standard

This section of the proposal provides the formal wording for the standard.

Chapter 17 Library introduction [library]

Add a new paragraph with the following wording:

The atomic components allow more fine-grained concurrent access to shared data than is possible with locks.

Chapter 20 General utilities library [utilities]

This chapter of the working paper has not yet been modified for concepts. The changes listed under this chapter will apply after those of N2322 Concepts for the C++0x Standard Library: Utilities or its adopted successor.

20.1 Concepts [utility.concepts]

In the synopsis, move LessThanComparable immediately before EqualityComparable.

In the synopsis, immediately after EqualityComparable add:

concept AtomicComparable<typename T> see below;
concept_map AtomicComparable<T> see below;

In the synopsis, immediately after CopyAssignable add:

concept TriviallyCopyAssignable<typename T> see below;
template<CopyAssignable T> concept_map TriviallyCopyAssignable<T> see below;

20.1.2 Comparisons [concept.comparison]

Move the paragraphs on LessThanComparable immediately before those on EqualityComparable.

Add a new paragraph after those on EqualityComparable.

Concept AtomicComparable to enable a bitwise equality comparison, as with memcmp, in the implementation of compare-and-swap operations. [Note: Such types should not have padding, i.e. the size of the type is the sum of the sizes of its elements. If padding exists, the comparison may provide false negatives, but never false positives. —end note]

concept AtomicComparable<typename T> { }

Add a new paragraph.

All integral types are AtomicComparable.

concept_map AtomicComparable<char> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<signed char> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<unsigned char> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<short> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<unsigned short> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<int> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<unsigned int> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<long> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<unsigned long> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<long long> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<unsigned long long> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<wchar_t> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<char16_t> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<char32_t> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<char32_t> { }
concept_map AtomicComparable<bool> { }

Add a new paragraph.

All pointer types are AtomicComparable.

template< typename T > concept_map AtomicComparable<T*> { }

20.1.5 Copy and move [concept.copymove]

Add a new paragraph after the paragraph on CopyAssignable:

Concept TriviallyCopyAssignable requires the ability to assign to an object with a trivial assignment.

concept TriviallyCopyAssignable<typename T> : CopyAssignable<T> { }

template<CopyAssignable T>
    requires True<has_trivial_assign<T>::value>
concept_map TriviallyCopyAssignable<T> { }

Chapter 29 Atomics library [atomics]

Add a new clause with the following paragraphs.

This clause describes components for fine-grained atomic access. This access is provided via operations on atomic objects. [Footnote: Atomic objects are neither active nor radioactive. —end footnote]

The following subclauses describe atomics requirements, and components for types and operations, as summarized below.

Atomics library summary

Subclause	Header(s)
29.1 Order and Consistency [atomics.order]
29.2 Lock-Free Property [atomics.lockfree]
29.3 Flag Type and Operations [atomics.flag]
29.4 Integral and Address Types [atomics.types]
29.5 Operations [atomics.operations]
29.6 Generic Types [atomics.generic]
29.7 Synopsis [atomics.synopsis]	<cstdatomic> <stdatomic.h>

29.1 Order and Consistency [atomics.order]

Add a new sub-clause with the following paragraphs.

The enumeration memory_order specifies the detailed regular (non-atomic) memory synchronization order as defined in [the new section added by N2334 or its adopted successor] and may provide for operation ordering. Its enumerated values and their meanings are as follows.

memory_order_relaxed

The operation does not order memory.

memory_order_release

Performs a release operation on the affected memory locations, thus making regular memory writes visible to other threads through the atomic variable to which it is applied.

memory_order_acquire

Performs an acquire operation on the affected memory locations, thus making regular memory writes in other threads released through the atomic variable to which it is applied, visible to the current thread.

memory_order_acq_rel

The operation has both acquire and release semantics.

memory_order_seq_cst

The operation has both acquire and release semantics, and in addition, has sequentially-consistent operation ordering.

The memory_order_seq_cst operations that load a value are acquire operations on the affected locations. The memory_order_seq_cst operations that store a value are release operations on the affected locations. In addition, in a consistent execution, there must be a single total order S on all memory_order_seq_cst operations, consistent with the happens before order and modification orders for all affected locations, such that each memory_order_seq_cst operation observes either the last preceding modification according to this order S, or the result of an operation that is not memory_order_seq_cst. [Note: Although we do not explicitly require that S include locks, it can always be extended to an order that does include lock and unlock operations, since the ordering between those is already included in the happens before ordering. —end note]

An atomic store shall only store a value that has been computed from constants and program input values by a finite sequence of program evaluations, such that each evaluation observes the values of variables as computed by the last prior assignment in the sequence. [Footnote: Among other implications, atomic variables shall not decay. —end footnote] The ordering of evaluations in this sequence must be such that

1. If an evaluation B observes a value computed by A in a different thread, then B must not happen before A.
2. If an evaluation A is included in the sequence, then all evaluations that assign to the same variable and are sequenced before or happens-before A must be included.

[Note: Requirement 2 disallows "out-of-thin-air", or "speculative" stores of atomics when relaxed atomics are used. Since unordered operations are involved, evaluations may appear in this sequence out of thread order. For example, with x and y initially zero,

Thread 1:

r1 = y.load( memory_order_relaxed );

x.store( r1, memory_order_relaxed );

Thread 2:

r2 = x.load( memory_order_relaxed );

y.store( 42, memory_order_relaxed );

is allowed to produce r1 = r2 = 42. The sequence of evaluations justifying this consists of:

y.store( 42, memory_order_relaxed );
r1 = y.load( memory_order_relaxed );
x.store( r1, memory_order_relaxed );
r2 = x.load( memory_order_relaxed );

On the other hand,

Thread 1:

r1 = y.load( memory_order_relaxed );

x.store( r1, memory_order_relaxed );

Thread 2:

r2 = x.load( memory_order_relaxed );

y.store( r2, memory_order_relaxed );

may not produce r1 = r2 = 42, since there is no sequence of evaluations that results in the computation of 42. In the absence of "relaxed" operations and read-modify-write operations with weaker than memory_order_acq_rel ordering, it has no impact. —end note]

[Note: The requirements do allow r1 == r2 == 42 in (x, y initially zero):

Thread 1:

r1 = x.load( memory_order_relaxed );

if ( r1 == 42 ) y.store( r1, memory_order_relaxed );

Thread 2:

r2 = y.load( memory_order_relaxed );

if ( r2 == 42 ) x.store( 42, memory_order_relaxed );

Implementations are discouraged from allowing such behavior. —end note]

Implementations shall strive to make atomic stores visible to atomic loads within a reasonable amount of time. They shall never move an atomic operation out of an unbounded loop.

29.2 Lock-Free Property [atomics.lockfree]

Add a new sub-clause with the following paragraphs.

The macros ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE and ATOMIC_ADDRESS_LOCK_FREE indicates the general lock-free property of integral and address atomic types. The properties also apply to the corresponding specializations of the atomic template. A value of 0 indicates that the types are never lock-free. A value of 1 indicates that the types are sometimes lock-free. A value of 2 indicates that the types are always lock-free.

The function atomic_is_lock_free indicates whether or not the object is lock-free. The result of a lock-free query on one object cannot be inferred from the result of a lock-free query on another object.

[Note: Operations that are lock-free should also be also address-free. That is, atomic operations on the same memory location via two different addresses will communicate atomically. The implementation shall not depend on any per-process state. This restriction enables communication via memory mapped into a process more than once and memory shared between two processes. —end note]

29.3 Flag Type and Operations [atomics.flag]

Add a new sub-clause with the following paragraphs.

The atomic_flag type provides the classic test-and-set functionality. It has two states, set and clear.

Operations on an atomic_flag must be lock free. [Note: Hence the operations must be address-free. No other type requires lock-free operations, and hence the atomic_flag type is the minimum hardware-implemented type needed to conform to this standard. The remaining types can be emulated with atomic_flag, though with less than ideal properties. —end note]

The atomic_flag type shall have standard layout. It shall have a trivial default constructor, deleted copy constructor, a deleted copy assignment operator, and a trivial destructor.

The macro ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT shall be used to initialize an atomic_flag to the clear state. Such initialization shall be static for static-duration variables. An atomic_flag shall not be zero initialized. [Example:

atomic_flag guard = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT;

—end example].

bool atomic_flag_test_and_set( volatile atomic_flag* object )
bool atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit( volatile atomic_flag* object,
        memory_order )
bool atomic_flag::test_and_set(
        memory_order order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile

Effects:

Atomically, set the value in object to true. Memory is affected as per order. These operations are read-modify-write operations in the sense of the "synchronizes with" definition in [the new section added by N2334 or successor], and hence both such an operation and the evaluation that produced the input value synchronize with any evaluation that reads the updated value.

Returns:

Atomically, true if the set of object immediately before the effects.

void atomic_flag_clear( volatile atomic_flag* object )
void atomic_flag_clear_explicit( volatile atomic_flag* object,
        memory_order )
void atomic_flag::clear(
        memory_order order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile

Effects:

Atomically, set the value in object to true. Memory is affected as per order.

Requires:

The order argument shall be neither memory_order_acquire nor memory_order_acq_rel.

void atomic_flag_fence( const volatile atomic_flag* object,
        memory_order order )
void atomic_flag::fence( memory_order order ) const volatile

Effects:

Memory is affected as per order. These operations are read-modify-write operations in the sense of the "synchronizes with" definition in [the new section added by N2334 or successor], and hence such an operation synchronizes with any operation on the same variable.

Requires:

The order argument shall not be memory_order_relaxed.

The static-duration variable atomic_global_fence_compatibility of type atomic_flag may be used to emulate global fences. [Example:

atomic_flag_fence( &atomic_global_fence_compatibility, memory_order_acquire );
atomic_global_fence_compatibility.fence( memory_order_release );

—end example]

29.4 Integral and Address Types [atomics.types]

Add a new sub-clause with the following paragraphs.

The atomic integral and address types are listed below. These types shall have standard layout. They shall have a trivial default constructor, A constexpr explicit value constructor, a deleted copy constructor, a deleted copy assignment operator, and a trivial destructor. These types shall support aggregate initialization syntax.

The set of operations availble for these types are defined in 29.7 Synopsis [atomics.synopsis]. The semantics of those operations are defined in 29.5 Operations [atomics.operations].

The atomic_bool type provides an atomic boolean.

The atomic_address type provides atomic void* operations. The unit of addition/subtraction is one byte. [Note: The fetch-and-and, fetch-and-or, and fetch-and-xor operations are not supported as those operations have no semantics for pointers. —end note]

There are a full set of atomic integral types.

atomic_char, atomic_schar, atomic_uchar, atomic_short, atomic_ushort, atomic_int, atomic_uint, atomic_long, atomic_ulong, atomic_llong, atomic_ullong atomic_char16_t, atomic_char32_t, atomic_wchar_t

In addition to integral types, there are typedefs for atomic types corresponding to the <cstdint> typedefs.

atomic_int_least8_t, atomic_uint_least8_t, atomic_int_least16_t, atomic_uint_least16_t, atomic_int_least32_t, atomic_uint_least32_t, atomic_int_least64_t, atomic_uint_least64_t, atomic_int_fast8_t, atomic_uint_fast8_t, atomic_int_fast16_t, atomic_uint_fast16_t, atomic_int_fast32_t, atomic_uint_fast32_t, atomic_int_fast64_t, atomic_uint_fast64_t, atomic_intptr_t, atomic_uintptr_t, atomic_size_t, atomic_ssize_t, atomic_ptrdiff_t, atomic_intmax_t, atomic_uintmax_t

[Note: The representation of atomic integral and address types need not have the same size as their corresponding regular types. They should have the same size whenever possible, as it eases effort required to port existing code. —end note]

29.5 Operations [atomics.operations]

Add a new sub-clause with the following paragraphs.

There are only a few kinds of operations on atomic types, though there are many instances on those kinds. This section specifies each general kind, and the specific instances are defined in 29.7 Synopsis [atomics.synopsis].

In the following operation definitions:

• An A refers to one of the atomic types.
• A C refers to its corresponding non-atomic type. The atomic_address atomic type corresponds to the void* non-atomic type.
• A M refers to type of the other argument for arithmetic operaions. For integral atomic types, M is C. For atomic address types, M is std::ptrdiff_t.
• The free functions not ending in _explicit have the semantics of their corresponding _explicit with memory_order arguments of memory_order_seq_cst.

[Note: Many operations are volatile-qualified. The "volatile as device register" semantics have not changed in the standard. This qualification means that volatility is preserved when applying these operations to volatile objects. It does not mean that operations on non-volatile objects become volatile. Thus, volatile qualified operations on non-volatile objects may be merged under some conditions. —end note]

bool atomic_is_lock_free( const volatile A* object )
void A::is_lock_free() const volatile

Returns:

True if the object's operations are lock-free, false otherwise.

void atomic_store( volatile A* object, C desired )
void atomic_store_explicit( volatile A* object, C desired,
         memory_order order )
void A::store( C desired,
         memory_order order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile

Effects:

Atomically replace the value in object with desired. Memory is affected as per order.

Requires:

The order argument shall be neither memory_order_acquire nor memory_order_acq_rel.

C A::operator =( C desired ) volatile

Effects:

store( desired )

Returns:

desired

C atomic_load( volatile A* object )
C atomic_load_explicit( volatile A* object, memory_order )
C A::load( memory_order order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile

Effects:

Memory is affected as per order.

Returns:

Atomically return value in object. Memory is affected as per order.

Requires:

The order argument shall be neither memory_order_release nor memory_order_acq_rel.

C atomic_swap( volatile A* object, C desired )
C atomic_swap_explicit( volatile A* object, C desired, memory_order )
C A::swap( C desired,
         memory_order order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile

Effects:

Atomically replace the value in object with desired. Memory is affected as per order. These operations are read-modify-write operations in the sense of the "synchronizes with" definition in [the new section added by N2334 or successor], and hence both such an operation and the evaluation that produced the input value synchronize with any evaluation that reads the updated value.

Returns:

Atomically, the value of object immediately before the effects.

bool atomic_compare_swap( volatile A* object, C* expected, C desired )
bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile A* object,
        C* expected, C desired, memory_order success, memory_order failure )
bool A::compare_swap( C& expected, C desired,
        memory_order success, memory_order failure ) volatile
bool A::compare_swap( C& expected, C desired,
        memory_order order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile

Effects:

Atomically, compares the value in object for equality with that in expected, and if true, replaces the value in object with desired, and if false, updates the value in expected with the value in object. If true, memory is affected as per success. If false, memory is affected as per failure. When only a single order is specified, success is order and failure is order with memory_order_acq_rel decaying to memory_order_acquire and memory_order_release decaying to memory_order_relaxed. [Footnote: The memory order decays, not the memory itself. —end footnote] These operations are read-modify-write operations in the sense of the "synchronizes with" definition in [the new section added by N2334 or successor], and hence both such an operation and the evaluation that produced the input value synchronize with any evaluation that reads the updated value.

Returns:

The result of the comparison.

Requires:

The failure argument shall be neither memory_order_release nor memory_order_acq_rel. The failure argument shall be no stronger than the success argument.

[Note: The effect of the compare-and-swap operations is

if ( *object == *expected )
    *object = desired;
else
    *expected = *object;

—end note]

The compare-and-swap operations may fail spuriously, that is return false while leaving the value in expected unchanged. [Note: This spurious failure enables implementation of compare-and-swap on a broader class of machines, e.g. load-locked store-conditional machines. —end note] [Example: A consequence of spurious failure is that nearly all uses of compare-and-swap will be in a loop.

expected = current.load();
do desired = function( expected );
while ( ! current.compare_swap( expected, desired ) );

—end example]

void atomic_fence( const volatile A* object, memory_order order )
void A::fence( memory_order order ) const volatile

Effects:

Memory is affected as per order. These operations are read-modify-write operations in the sense of the "synchronizes with" definition in [the new section added by N2334 or successor], and hence such an operation synchronizes with any operation on the same variable.

Requires:

The failure argument shall not be memory_order_relaxed.

The following operations perform arithmetic computations. The key, operator, and computation correspondence is:

key	op	computation	key	op	computation
add	+	addition	sub	-	subtraction
or	|	bitwise inclusive or	xor	^	bitwise exclusive or
and	&	bitwise and

C atomic_fetch_key( volatile A* object, M operand )
C atomic_fetch_key_explicit( volatile A* object, M operand,
        memory_order )
C A::fetch_key( M operand,
        memory_order order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile

Effects:

Atomically replace the value in object with result of the computation applied to the value in object and the given operand. Memory is affected as per order. These operations are read-modify-write operations in the sense of the "synchronizes with" definition in [the new section added by N2334 or successor], and hence both such an operation and the evaluation that produced the input value synchronize with any evaluation that reads the updated value.

Returns:

Atomically, the value of object immediately before the effects.

For signed integral types, arithmetic is defined to use two's-complement representation. There are no undefined results. For address types, the result may be an undefined address, but the operations otherwise have no undefined behavior.

C A::operator op=( M operand ) volatile

Effects:

fetch_key( operand )

Returns:

fetch_key( operand ) op operand

C A::operator ++( int ) volatile

Effects:

fetch_add( 1 )

Returns:

fetch_add( 1 )

C A::operator --( int ) volatile

Effects:

fetch_sub( 1 )

Returns:

fetch_sub( 1 )

C A::operator ++() volatile

Effects:

fetch_add( 1 )

Returns:

fetch_add( 1 ) + 1

C A::operator --() volatile

Effects:

fetch_sub( 1 )

Returns:

fetch_sub( 1 ) - 1

29.6 Generic Types [atomics.generic]

Add a new sub-clause with the following paragraphs.

There is a generic atomic class template. The template requires that its type argument be trivially copy assignable and bitwise equality comparable. [Note: Type arguments that are not also statically initializable and trivially destructable may be difficult to use. —end note]

The atomic template instances shall have a deleted copy constructor, and a deleted copy assignment operator. They shal have a constexpr explicit value constructor.

There are pointer partial specializations on the atomic class template. These specializations publically derive from atomic_address For atomic pointer partial specializations, the unit of addition/subtraction is the size of the referenced type. These instances shall have trivial default constructors and trivial destructors.

There are full specializations over the integral types on the atomic class template. These specializations publically derive from the corresponding atomic integral type. These instances shall have trivial default constructors and trivial destructors.

29.7 Synopsis [atomics.synopsis]

Add a new sub-clause with the following paragraphs.

The atomic types and operations have the following synopsis.

namespace std {

#define ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE implementation-defined
#define ATOMIC_ADDRESS_LOCK_FREE implementation-defined

typedef enum memory_order {
       memory_order_relaxed, memory_order_acquire, memory_order_release,
       memory_order_acq_rel, memory_order_seq_cst
} memory_order;

typedef struct atomic_flag
{
    bool test_and_set( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void clear( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;

    atomic_flag() = default;
    atomic_flag( const atomic_flag& ) = delete;
    atomic_flag& operator =( const atomic_flag& ) = delete;
} atomic_flag;

#define ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT implementation-defined

extern const atomic_flag atomic_global_fence_compatibility;

bool atomic_flag_test_and_set( volatile atomic_flag* );
bool atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit( volatile atomic_flag*,
         memory_order );
void atomic_flag_clear( volatile atomic_flag* );
void atomic_flag_clear_explicit( volatile atomic_flag*, memory_order );
void atomic_flag_fence( const volatile atomic_flag*, memory_order );

typedef struct atomic_bool
{
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( bool, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool swap( bool, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( bool&, bool, memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( bool&, bool,
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;

    atomic_bool() = default;
    constexpr explicit atomic_bool( bool );
    atomic_bool( const atomic_bool& ) = delete;
    atomic_bool& operator =( const atomic_bool & ) = delete;
    bool operator =( bool ) volatile;
} atomic_bool;

bool atomic_is_lock_free( const volatile atomic_bool* );
void atomic_store( volatile atomic_bool*, bool );
void atomic_store_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, bool, memory_order );
bool atomic_load( volatile atomic_bool* );
bool atomic_load_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, memory_order );
bool atomic_swap( volatile atomic_bool* );
bool atomic_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, bool );
bool atomic_compare_swap( volatile atomic_bool*, bool*, bool );
bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, bool*, bool,
                                   memory_order, memory_order );
void atomic_fence( const volatile atomic_bool*, memory_order );

typedef struct atomic_address
{
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( void*, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void* load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void* swap( void*, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( void*&, void*,
                       memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( void*&, void*,
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;
    void* fetch_add( ptrdiff_t,
                     memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void* fetch_sub( ptrdiff_t,
                     memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;

    atomic_address() = default;
    constexpr explicit atomic_address( void* );
    atomic_address( const atomic_address& ) = delete;
    atomic_address& operator =( const atomic_address& ) = delete;
    void* operator =( void* ) volatile;
    void* operator +=( ptrdiff_t ) volatile;
    void* operator -=( ptrdiff_t ) volatile;
} atomic_address;

bool atomic_is_lock_free( const volatile atomic_address* );
void atomic_store( volatile atomic_address*, void* );
void atomic_store_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, void*, memory_order );
void* atomic_load( volatile atomic_address* );
void* atomic_load_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, memory_order );
void* atomic_swap( volatile atomic_address* );
void* atomic_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, void*, memory_order );
bool atomic_compare_swap( volatile atomic_address*, void**, void* );
bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, void**, void*,
                                   memory_order, memory_order );
void atomic_fence( const volatile atomic_address*, memory_order );
void* atomic_fetch_add( volatile atomic_address*, ptrdiff_t );
void* atomic_fetch_add_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, ptrdiff_t,
                                 memory_order );
void* atomic_fetch_sub( volatile atomic_address*, ptrdiff_t );
void* atomic_fetch_sub_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, ptrdiff_t,
                                 memory_order );

And for each of the integral (character and integer) types listed above,

typedef struct atomic_integral
{
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( integral, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    integral load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    integral swap( integral,
                   memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( integral&, integral,
                       memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( integral&, integral,
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;
    integral fetch_add( integral,
                        memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    integral fetch_sub( integral,
                        memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    integral fetch_and( integral,
                        memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    integral fetch_or( integral,
                        memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    integral fetch_xor( integral,
                        memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;

    atomic_integral() = default;
    constexpr explicit atomic_integral( integral );
    atomic_integral( const atomic_integral& ) = delete;
    atomic_integral& operator =( const atomic_integral & ) = delete;
    integral operator =( integral ) volatile;
    integral operator ++( int ) volatile;
    integral operator --( int ) volatile;
    integral operator ++() volatile;
    integral operator --() volatile;
    integral operator +=( integral ) volatile;
    integral operator -=( integral ) volatile;
    integral operator &=( integral ) volatile;
    integral operator |=( integral ) volatile;
    integral operator ^=( integral ) volatile;
} atomic_integral;

bool atomic_is_lock_free( const volatile atomic_integral* );
void atomic_store( volatile atomic_integral*, integral );
void atomic_store_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral,
                            memory_order );
integral atomic_load( volatile atomic_integral* );
integral atomic_load_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, memory_order );
integral atomic_swap( volatile atomic_integral*, integral );
integral atomic_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral,
                               memory_order );
bool atomic_compare_swap( volatile atomic_integral*, integral*, integral );
bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral*,
                                   integral, memory_order, memory_order );
void atomic_fence( const volatile atomic_integral*, memory_order );
integral atomic_fetch_add( volatile atomic_integral*, integral );
integral atomic_fetch_add_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral,
                                    memory_order );
integral atomic_fetch_sub( volatile atomic_integral*, integral );
integral atomic_fetch_sub_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral,
                                    memory_order );
integral atomic_fetch_and( volatile atomic_integral*, integral );
integral atomic_fetch_and_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral,
                                    memory_order );
integral atomic_fetch_or( volatile atomic_integral*, integral );
integral atomic_fetch_or_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral,
                                    memory_order );
integral atomic_fetch_xor( volatile atomic_integral*, integral );
integral atomic_fetch_xor_explicit( volatile atomic_integral*, integral,
                                    memory_order );

template< TriviallyCopyConstructable T >
    requires AtomicComparable< T >
struct atomic
{
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( T, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T swap( T, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( T&, T, memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( T&, T,
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;

    atomic() = default;
    constexpr explicit atomic( T );
    atomic( const atomic& ) = delete;
    atomic& operator =( const atomic& ) = delete;
    T operator =( T ) volatile;
};

template<typename T>
struct atomic< T* > : atomic_address
{
    T* fetch_add( ptrdiff_t, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T* fetch_sub( ptrdiff_t, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;

    atomic() = default;
    constexpr explicit atomic( T );
    atomic( const atomic& ) = delete;
    atomic& operator =( const atomic& ) = delete;

    T* operator =( T* ) volatile;
    T* operator ++( int ) volatile;
    T* operator --( int ) volatile;
    T* operator ++() volatile;
    T* operator --() volatile;
    T* operator +=( ptrdiff_t ) volatile;
    T* operator -=( ptrdiff_t ) volatile;
};

template<>
struct atomic< integral > : atomic_integral
{
    atomic() = default;
    constexpr explicit atomic( integral );
    atomic( const atomic& ) = delete;
    atomic& operator =( const atomic& ) = delete;

    integral operator =( integral ) volatile;
};

} // namespace std

The standard provides two headers, cstdatomic and stdatomic.h. The cstdatomic header defines the types and functions in namespace std. The stdatomic.h header declares the types and functions in namespace std and has using declarations for those types and functions in the global namespace.

Implementation

This proposal embeds an example, minimally-conforming, implementation for both C and C++. The implementation uses a hash table of flags and does busy waiting on the flags.

Notes on the Presentation

The proposal marks the defined interface with the <code> font tag, which typically renders in a teletype font.

The proposal marks the example implemenation with the <var> font tag within the <code> font tag, which typically renders in an italic teletype font. This example implementation is not part of the standard; it is evidence of implementability.

The embedded source is a bash script that generates the C and C++ source files. We have taken this approach because the definitions have a high degree of redundancy, which would otherwise interfere with the readability of the document.

To extract the bash script from the HTML source, use the following sed script. (The bash script will also generate the sed script.)

echo n2427.sed
cat <<EOF >n2427.sed

1,/<code>/        d
/<\/code>/,/<code>/    d
            s|<var>||g
            s|</var>||g
            s|&lt;|<|g
            s|&gt;|>|g
            s|&amp;|\&|g

EOF

To compile the enclosed sources and examples, use the following Makefile. (The bash script will also generate the Makefile.)

echo Makefile
cat <<EOF >Makefile

default : test

n2427.bash : n2427.html
	sed -f n2427.sed n2427.html > n2427.bash

stdatomic.h cstdatomic impatomic.h impatomic.c n2427.c : n2427.bash
	bash n2427.bash

impatomic.o : impatomic.h impatomic.c
	gcc -std=c99 -c impatomic.c

n2427.c.exe : n2427.c stdatomic.h impatomic.o
	gcc -std=c99 -o n2427.c.exe n2427.c impatomic.o

n2427.c++.exe : n2427.c stdatomic.h impatomic.o
	g++ -o n2427.c++.exe n2427.c impatomic.o

test : n2427.c.exe n2427.c++.exe

clean :
	rm -f n2427.bash stdatomic.h cstdatomic impatomic.h impatomic.c
	rm -f impatomic.o n2427.c.exe n2427.c++.exe

EOF

Implementation Files

As is common practice, we place the common portions of the C and C++ standard headers in a separate implementation header.

The implementation header includes standard headers to obtain basic typedefs.

echo impatomic.h includes
cat <<EOF >impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus
#include <cstddef>
namespace std {
#else
#include <stddef.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
#endif

EOF

The corresponding implementation source includes the implementation header and stdint.h.

echo impatomic.c includes
cat <<EOF >impatomic.c

#include <stdint.h>
#include "impatomic.h"

EOF

C++0x Features

Because current compilers do not support the new C++0x features, we have surrounded these with a macro to conditionally remove them.

echo impatomic.h CPP0X
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#define CPP0X( feature )

EOF

Memory Order

echo impatomic.h order
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

typedef enum memory_order {
    memory_order_relaxed, memory_order_acquire, memory_order_release,
    memory_order_acq_rel, memory_order_seq_cst
} memory_order;

EOF

Flag Type and Operations

To aid the emulated implementation, the example implementation includes a predefined hashtable of locks implemented via flags.

echo impatomic.h flag
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

typedef struct atomic_flag
{
#ifdef __cplusplus
    bool test_and_set( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void clear( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;

    CPP0X( atomic_flag() = default; )
    CPP0X( atomic_flag( const atomic_flag& ) = delete; )
    atomic_flag& operator =( const atomic_flag& ) CPP0X(=delete);

CPP0X(private:)
#endif
    bool __f__;
} atomic_flag;

#define ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT { false }

#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C" {
#endif

extern bool atomic_flag_test_and_set( volatile atomic_flag* );
extern bool atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit
( volatile atomic_flag*, memory_order );
extern void atomic_flag_clear( volatile atomic_flag* );
extern void atomic_flag_clear_explicit
( volatile atomic_flag*, memory_order );
extern void atomic_flag_fence
( const volatile atomic_flag*, memory_order );
extern void __atomic_flag_wait__
( volatile atomic_flag* );
extern void __atomic_flag_wait_explicit__
( volatile atomic_flag*, memory_order );
extern volatile atomic_flag* __atomic_flag_for_address__
( const volatile void* __z__ )
__attribute__((const));

#ifdef __cplusplus
}
#endif

#ifdef __cplusplus

inline bool atomic_flag::test_and_set( memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit( this, __x__ ); }

inline void atomic_flag::clear( memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ atomic_flag_clear_explicit( this, __x__ ); }

inline void atomic_flag::fence( memory_order __x__ ) const volatile
{ atomic_flag_fence( this, __x__ ); }

#endif

EOF

The wait operation may be implemented with busy-waiting, and hence must be used only with care.

The for_address function returns the address of a flag for the given address. Multiple argument values may yield a single flag, and the implementation of locks may use these flags, so no operation should attempt to hold any flag or lock while holding a flag for an address.

The prototype implementation of flags uses the __sync macros from the GNU C/C++ compiler, when available, and otherwise uses a non-atomic implementation with the expectation that vendors will replace it. It might even be implemented with, for example, pthread_mutex_trylock, in which case the internal flag wait function might just be pthread_mutex_lock. This would of course tend to make atomic_flag larger than necessary.

The prototype implementation of flags is implemented in C.

echo impatomic.c flag
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.c

#if defined(__GNUC__)
#if __GNUC__ > 4 || (__GNUC__ == 4 && __GNUC_MINOR__ > 0)
#define USE_SYNC
#endif
#endif

bool atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit
( volatile atomic_flag* __a__, memory_order __x__ )
{
#ifdef USE_SYNC
    if ( __x__ >= memory_order_acq_rel )
        __sync_synchronize();
    return __sync_lock_test_and_set( &(__a__->__f__), 1 );
#else
    bool result = __a__->__f__;
    __a__->__f__ = true;
    return result;
#endif
}

bool atomic_flag_test_and_set( volatile atomic_flag* __a__ )
{ return atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit( __a__, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

void atomic_flag_clear_explicit
( volatile atomic_flag* __a__, memory_order __x__ )
{
#ifdef USE_SYNC
    __sync_lock_release( &(__a__->__f__) );
    if ( __x__ >= memory_order_acq_rel )
        __sync_synchronize();
#else
    __a__->__f__ = false;
#endif
} 

void atomic_flag_clear( volatile atomic_flag* __a__ )
{ atomic_flag_clear_explicit( __a__, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

void atomic_flag_fence( const volatile atomic_flag* __a__, memory_order __x__ )
{ 
#ifdef USE_SYNC
    __sync_synchronize();
#endif
} 

Note that the following implementation of wait is almost always wrong -- it has high contention. Some form of exponential backoff prevents excessive contention.

void __atomic_flag_wait__( volatile atomic_flag* __a__ )
{ while ( atomic_flag_test_and_set( __a__ ) ); }

void __atomic_flag_wait_explicit__( volatile atomic_flag* __a__,
                                    memory_order __x__ )
{ while ( atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit( __a__, __x__ ) ); }

#define LOGSIZE 4

static atomic_flag volatile __atomic_flag_anon_table__[ 1 << LOGSIZE ] =
{
    ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT,
    ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT,
    ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT,
    ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT, ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT,
};

volatile atomic_flag* __atomic_flag_for_address__( const volatile void* __z__ )
{
    uintptr_t __u__ = (uintptr_t)__z__;
    __u__ += (__u__ >> 2) + (__u__ << 4);
    __u__ += (__u__ >> 7) + (__u__ << 5);
    __u__ += (__u__ >> 17) + (__u__ << 13);
    if ( sizeof(uintptr_t) > 4 ) __u__ += (__u__ >> 31);
    __u__ &= ~((~(uintptr_t)0) << LOGSIZE);
    return __atomic_flag_anon_table__ + __u__;
}

EOF

Implementation Macros

The remainder of the example implementation uses the following macros. These macros exploit GNU extensions for value-returning blocks (AKA statement expressions) and __typeof__.

The macros rely on data fields of atomic structs being named __f__. Other symbols used are __a__=atomic, __e__=expected, __f__=field, __g__=flag, __m__=modified, __o__=operation, __r__=result, __p__=pointer to field, __v__=value (for single evaluation), __x__=memory-ordering, and __y__=memory-ordering.

echo impatomic.h macros implementation
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#define _ATOMIC_LOAD_( __a__, __x__ ) \\
({ volatile __typeof__((__a__)->__f__)* __p__ = &((__a__)->__f__); \\
   volatile atomic_flag* __g__ = __atomic_flag_for_address__( __p__ ); \\
   __atomic_flag_wait_explicit__( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   __typeof__((__a__)->__f__) __r__ = *__p__; \\
   atomic_flag_clear_explicit( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   __r__; })

#define _ATOMIC_STORE_( __a__, __m__, __x__ ) \\
({ volatile __typeof__((__a__)->__f__)* __p__ = &((__a__)->__f__); \\
   __typeof__(__m__) __v__ = (__m__); \\
   volatile atomic_flag* __g__ = __atomic_flag_for_address__( __p__ ); \\
   __atomic_flag_wait_explicit__( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   *__p__ = __v__; \\
   atomic_flag_clear_explicit( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   __v__; })

#define _ATOMIC_MODIFY_( __a__, __o__, __m__, __x__ ) \\
({ volatile __typeof__((__a__)->__f__)* __p__ = &((__a__)->__f__); \\
   __typeof__(__m__) __v__ = (__m__); \\
   volatile atomic_flag* __g__ = __atomic_flag_for_address__( __p__ ); \\
   __atomic_flag_wait_explicit__( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   __typeof__((__a__)->__f__) __r__ = *__p__; \\
   *__p__ __o__ __v__; \\
   atomic_flag_clear_explicit( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   __r__; })

#define _ATOMIC_CMPSWP_( __a__, __e__, __m__, __x__ ) \\
({ volatile __typeof__((__a__)->__f__)* __p__ = &((__a__)->__f__); \\
   __typeof__(__e__) __q__ = (__e__); \\
   __typeof__(__m__) __v__ = (__m__); \\
   bool __r__; \\
   volatile atomic_flag* __g__ = __atomic_flag_for_address__( __p__ ); \\
   __atomic_flag_wait_explicit__( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   __typeof__((__a__)->__f__) __t__ = *__p__; \\
   if ( __t__ == *__q__ ) { *__p__ = __v__; __r__ = true; } \\
   else { *__q__ = __t__; __r__ = false; } \\
   atomic_flag_clear_explicit( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   __r__; })

#define _ATOMIC_FENCE_( __a__, __x__ ) \\
({ volatile __typeof__((__a__)->__f__)* __p__ = &((__a__)->__f__); \\
   volatile atomic_flag* __g__ = __atomic_flag_for_address__( __p__ ); \\
   atomic_flag_fence( __g__, __x__ ); \\
   })

EOF

Lock-Free Macro

echo impatomic.h lock-free macros
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#define ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE 0
#define ATOMIC_ADDRESS_LOCK_FREE 0

EOF

Integral and Address Types

The standard defines atomic types corresponding to booleans, addresses, integers, and for C++, wider characters. These atomic types are defined in terms of a base type.

The base types have two names in this proposal, a short name usually embedded within other identifiers, and a long name for the base type. The mapping between them is as follows.

bool="bool"
address="void*"

INTEGERS="char schar uchar short ushort int uint long ulong llong ullong"
char="char"
schar="signed char"
uchar="unsigned char"
short="short"
ushort="unsigned short"
int="int"
uint="unsigned int"
long="long"
ulong="unsigned long"
llong="long long"
ullong="unsigned long long"

CHARACTERS="wchar_t"
# CHARACTERS="char16_t char32_t wchar_t" // char*_t not yet in compilers
char16_t="char16_t"
char32_t="char32_t"
wchar_t="wchar_t"

In addition to types, some operations also need two names, one for embedding within other identifiers, and one consisting of the operator.

ADR_OPERATIONS="add sub"
INT_OPERATIONS="add sub and or xor"
add="+"
sub="-"
and="&"
or="|"
xor="^"

Boolean

echo impatomic.h type boolean
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

typedef struct atomic_bool
{
#ifdef __cplusplus
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( bool, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool swap( bool, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap ( bool&, bool, memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap ( bool&, bool,
                        memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;

    CPP0X( atomic_bool() = delete; )
    CPP0X( constexpr explicit atomic_bool( bool __v__ ) : __f__( __v__ ) { } )
    CPP0X( atomic_bool( const atomic_bool& ) = delete; )
    atomic_bool& operator =( const atomic_bool& ) CPP0X(=delete);

    bool operator =( bool __v__ ) volatile
    { store( __v__ ); return __v__; }

    friend void atomic_store_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, bool,
                                       memory_order );
    friend bool atomic_load_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, memory_order );
    friend bool atomic_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, bool,
                                      memory_order );
    friend bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_bool*, bool*, bool,
                                              memory_order, memory_order );
    friend void atomic_fence( const volatile atomic_bool*, memory_order );

CPP0X(private:)
#endif
    bool __f__;
} atomic_bool;

EOF

Address

echo impatomic.h type address
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

typedef struct atomic_address
{
#ifdef __cplusplus
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( void*, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void* load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void* swap( void*, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( void*&, void*, memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( void*&, void*,
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;
    void* fetch_add( ptrdiff_t, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void* fetch_sub( ptrdiff_t, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;

    CPP0X( atomic_address() = default; )
    CPP0X( constexpr explicit atomic_address( void* __v__ ) : __f__( __v__) { } )
    CPP0X( atomic_address( const atomic_address& ) = delete; )
    atomic_address& operator =( const atomic_address & ) CPP0X(=delete);

    void* operator =( void* __v__ ) volatile
    { store( __v__ ); return __v__; }

    void* operator +=( ptrdiff_t __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_add( __v__ ); }

    void* operator -=( ptrdiff_t __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_sub( __v__ ); }

    friend void atomic_store_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, void*,
                                       memory_order );
    friend void* atomic_load_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, memory_order );
    friend void* atomic_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, void*,
                                       memory_order );
    friend bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_address*,
                              void**, void*, memory_order, memory_order );
    friend void atomic_fence( const volatile atomic_address*, memory_order );
    friend void* atomic_fetch_add_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, ptrdiff_t,
                                            memory_order );
    friend void* atomic_fetch_sub_explicit( volatile atomic_address*, ptrdiff_t,
                                            memory_order );

CPP0X(private:)
#endif
    void* __f__;
} atomic_address;

EOF

Integers

echo impatomic.h type integers
for TYPEKEY in ${INTEGERS}
do
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

typedef struct atomic_${TYPEKEY}
{
#ifdef __cplusplus
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( ${TYPENAME},
                memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} swap( ${TYPENAME},
                      memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( ${TYPENAME}&, ${TYPENAME},
                       memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( ${TYPENAME}&, ${TYPENAME},
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_add( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_sub( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_and( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_or( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_xor( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;

    CPP0X( atomic_${TYPEKEY}() = default; )
    CPP0X( constexpr atomic_${TYPEKEY}( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) : __f__( __v__) { } )
    CPP0X( atomic_${TYPEKEY}( const atomic_${TYPEKEY}& ) = delete; )
    atomic_${TYPEKEY}& operator =( const atomic_${TYPEKEY}& ) CPP0X(=delete);

    ${TYPENAME} operator =( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { store( __v__ ); return __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator ++( int ) volatile
    { return fetch_add( 1 ); }

    ${TYPENAME} operator --( int ) volatile
    { return fetch_sub( 1 ); }

    ${TYPENAME} operator ++() volatile
    { return fetch_add( 1 ) + 1; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator --() volatile
    { return fetch_sub( 1 ) - 1; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator +=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_add( __v__ ) + __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator -=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_sub( __v__ ) - __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator &=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_and( __v__ ) & __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator |=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_or( __v__ ) | __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator ^=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_xor( __v__ ) ^ __v__; }

    friend void atomic_store_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*, ${TYPENAME},
                                       memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_load_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                             memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                             ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                      ${TYPENAME}*, ${TYPENAME}, memory_order, memory_order );
    friend void atomic_fence( const volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_add_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_sub_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_and_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_or_explicit(  volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_xor_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );

CPP0X(private:)
#endif
    ${TYPENAME} __f__;
} atomic_${TYPEKEY};

EOF
done

Integer Typedefs

The following typedefs support atomic versons of the cstdint and stdint.h types.

echo impatomic.h typedefs integers
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

typedef atomic_schar atomic_int_least8_t;
typedef atomic_uchar atomic_uint_least8_t;
typedef atomic_short atomic_int_least16_t;
typedef atomic_ushort atomic_uint_least16_t;
typedef atomic_int atomic_int_least32_t;
typedef atomic_uint atomic_uint_least32_t;
typedef atomic_llong atomic_int_least64_t;
typedef atomic_ullong atomic_uint_least64_t;

typedef atomic_schar atomic_int_fast8_t;
typedef atomic_uchar atomic_uint_fast8_t;
typedef atomic_short atomic_int_fast16_t;
typedef atomic_ushort atomic_uint_fast16_t;
typedef atomic_int atomic_int_fast32_t;
typedef atomic_uint atomic_uint_fast32_t;
typedef atomic_llong atomic_int_fast64_t;
typedef atomic_ullong atomic_uint_fast64_t;

typedef atomic_long atomic_intptr_t;
typedef atomic_ulong atomic_uintptr_t;

typedef atomic_long atomic_ssize_t;
typedef atomic_ulong atomic_size_t;

typedef atomic_long atomic_ptrdiff_t;

typedef atomic_llong atomic_intmax_t;
typedef atomic_ullong atomic_uintmax_t;

EOF

Characters

echo impatomic.h type characters
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus

EOF

for TYPEKEY in ${CHARACTERS}
do
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

typedef struct atomic_${TYPEKEY}
{
#ifdef __cplusplus
    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( ${TYPENAME}, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} swap( ${TYPENAME},
                      memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( ${TYPENAME}&, ${TYPENAME},
                       memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( ${TYPENAME}&, ${TYPENAME},
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_add( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_sub( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_and( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_or( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    ${TYPENAME} fetch_xor( ${TYPENAME},
                           memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;

    CPP0X( atomic_${TYPENAME}() = default; )
    CPP0X( constexpr atomic_${TYPEKEY}( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) : __f__( __v__) { } )
    CPP0X( atomic_${TYPENAME}( const atomic_${TYPENAME}& ) = delete; )
    atomic_${TYPENAME}& operator =( const atomic_${TYPENAME}& ) CPP0X(=delete);

    ${TYPENAME} operator =( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { store( __v__ ); return __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator ++( int ) volatile
    { return fetch_add( 1 ); }

    ${TYPENAME} operator --( int ) volatile
    { return fetch_sub( 1 ); }

    ${TYPENAME} operator ++() volatile
    { return fetch_add( 1 ) + 1; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator --() volatile
    { return fetch_sub( 1 ) - 1; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator +=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_add( __v__ ) + __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator -=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_sub( __v__ ) - __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator &=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_and( __v__ ) & __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator |=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_or( __v__ ) | __v__; }

    ${TYPENAME} operator ^=( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_xor( __v__ ) ^ __v__; }

    friend void atomic_store_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*, ${TYPENAME},
                                       memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_load_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                             memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                             ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                    ${TYPENAME}*, ${TYPENAME}, memory_order, memory_order );
    friend void atomic_fence( const volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_add_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_sub_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_and_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_or_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );
    friend ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_xor_explicit( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}*,
                                                  ${TYPENAME}, memory_order );

CPP0X(private:)
#endif
    ${TYPENAME} __f__;
} atomic_${TYPEKEY};

EOF
done

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#else

typedef atomic_int_least16_t atomic_char16_t;
typedef atomic_int_least32_t atomic_char32_t;
typedef atomic_int_least32_t atomic_wchar_t;

#endif

EOF

Template Types

This section defines the atomic template and its various specializations.

Fully Generic Type

This minimal implementation does not specialize on size.

echo impatomic.h type generic
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus

template< typename T >
struct atomic
{
#ifdef __cplusplus

    bool is_lock_free() const volatile;
    void store( T, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T swap( T __v__, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( T&, T, memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( T&, T, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    void fence( memory_order ) const volatile;

    CPP0X( atomic() = default; )
    CPP0X( constexpr explicit atomic( T __v__ ) : __f__( __v__ ) { } )
    CPP0X( atomic( const atomic& ) = delete; )
    atomic& operator =( const atomic& ) CPP0X(=delete);

    T operator =( T __v__ ) volatile
    { store( __v__ ); return __v__; }

CPP0X(private:)
#endif
    T __f__;
};

#endif
EOF

Pointer Partial Specialization

echo impatomic.h type pointer
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus

template<typename T> struct atomic< T* > : atomic_address
{
    T* load( memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T* swap( T*, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( T*&, T*, memory_order, memory_order ) volatile;
    bool compare_swap( T*&, T*,
                       memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T* fetch_add( ptrdiff_t, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;
    T* fetch_sub( ptrdiff_t, memory_order = memory_order_seq_cst ) volatile;

    CPP0X( atomic() = default; )
    CPP0X( constexpr explicit atomic( T __v__ ) : atomic_address( __v__ ) { } )
    CPP0X( atomic( const atomic& ) = delete; )
    atomic& operator =( const atomic& ) CPP0X(=delete);

    T* operator =( T* __v__ ) volatile
    { store( __v__ ); return __v__; }

    T* operator ++( int ) volatile
    { return fetch_add( 1 ); }

    T* operator --( int ) volatile
    { return fetch_sub( 1 ); }

    T* operator ++() volatile
    { return fetch_add( 1 ) + 1; }

    T* operator --() volatile
    { return fetch_sub( 1 ) - 1; }

    T* operator +=( T* __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_add( __v__ ) + __v__; }

    T* operator -=( T* __v__ ) volatile
    { return fetch_sub( __v__ ) - __v__; }
};

#endif
EOF

Integral Full Specializations

We provide full specializations of the generic atomic for integers and characters. These specializations derive from the specific atomic types to enable implicit reference conversions. The implicit assignment of the derived class prevents inheriting the base class assignments, and so the assignment must be explicitly redeclared.

echo impatomic.h type specializations
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus

EOF

for TYPEKEY in bool address ${INTEGERS} ${CHARACTERS}
do
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

template<> struct atomic< ${TYPENAME} > : atomic_${TYPEKEY}
{
    CPP0X( atomic() = default; )
    CPP0X( constexpr explicit atomic( ${TYPENAME} __v__ )
    : atomic_${TYPEKEY}( __v__ ) { } )
    CPP0X( atomic( const atomic& ) = delete; )
    atomic& operator =( const atomic& ) CPP0X(=delete);

    ${TYPENAME} operator =( ${TYPENAME} __v__ ) volatile
    { store( __v__ ); return __v__; }
};

EOF
done

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#endif

EOF

C++ Core Functions

In C++, these operations are implemented as overloaded functions.

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus

EOF

echo impatomic.h functions ordinary basic
for TYPEKEY in bool address ${INTEGERS} ${CHARACTERS}
do
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

inline bool atomic_is_lock_free( const volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__ )
{ return false; }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_load_explicit
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, memory_order __x__ )
{ return _ATOMIC_LOAD_( __a__, __x__ ); }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_load( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__ )
{ return atomic_load_explicit( __a__, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

inline void atomic_store_explicit
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME} __m__, memory_order __x__ )
{ _ATOMIC_STORE_( __a__, __m__, __x__ ); }

inline void atomic_store
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME} __m__ )
{ atomic_store_explicit( __a__, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_swap_explicit
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME} __m__, memory_order __x__ )
{ return _ATOMIC_MODIFY_( __a__, =, __m__, __x__ ); }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_swap
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME} __m__ )
{ return atomic_swap_explicit( __a__, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

inline bool atomic_compare_swap_explicit
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME}* __e__, ${TYPENAME} __m__,
  memory_order __x__, memory_order __y__ )
{ return _ATOMIC_CMPSWP_( __a__, __e__, __m__, __x__ ); }

inline bool atomic_compare_swap
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME}* __e__, ${TYPENAME} __m__ )
{ return atomic_compare_swap_explicit( __a__, __e__, __m__,
                 memory_order_seq_cst, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

inline void atomic_fence
( const volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, memory_order __x__ )
{ _ATOMIC_FENCE_( __a__, __x__ ); }

EOF
done

echo impatomic.h functions address fetch
TYPEKEY=address
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}

for FNKEY in ${ADR_OPERATIONS}
do
OPERATOR=${!FNKEY}

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}_explicit
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ptrdiff_t __m__, memory_order __x__ )
{ ${TYPENAME} volatile* __p__ = &((__a__)->__f__);
  volatile atomic_flag* __g__ = __atomic_flag_for_address__( __p__ );
  __atomic_flag_wait_explicit__( __g__, __x__ );
  ${TYPENAME} __r__ = *__p__;
  *__p__ = (${TYPENAME})((char*)(*__p__) ${OPERATOR} __m__);
  atomic_flag_clear_explicit( __g__, __x__ );
  return __r__; }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ptrdiff_t __m__ )
{ return atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}_explicit( __a__, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

EOF
done

echo impatomic.h functions integer fetch
for TYPEKEY in ${INTEGERS} ${CHARACTERS}
do
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}

for FNKEY in ${INT_OPERATIONS}
do
OPERATOR=${!FNKEY}

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}_explicit
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME} __m__, memory_order __x__ )
{ return _ATOMIC_MODIFY_( __a__, ${OPERATOR}=, __m__, __x__ ); }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}
( volatile atomic_${TYPEKEY}* __a__, ${TYPENAME} __m__ )
{ atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}_explicit( __a__, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst ); }

EOF
done
done

C Core Macros

For C, we need type-generic macros.

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#else

EOF

echo impatomic.h type-generic macros basic
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#define atomic_is_lock_free( __a__ ) \\
false

#define atomic_load( __a__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_LOAD_( __a__, memory_order_seq_cst )

#define atomic_load_explicit( __a__, __x__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_LOAD_( __a__, __x__ )

#define atomic_store( __a__, __m__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_STORE_( __a__, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst )

#define atomic_store_explicit( __a__, __m__, __x__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_STORE_( __a__, __m__, __x__ )

#define atomic_swap( __a__, __m__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_MODIFY_( __a__, =, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst )

#define atomic_swap_explicit( __a__, __m__, __x__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_MODIFY_( __a__, =, __m__, __x__ )

#define atomic_compare_swap( __a__, __e__, __m__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_CMPSWP_( __a__, __e__, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst )

#define atomic_compare_swap_explicit( __a__, __e__, __m__, __x__, __y__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_CMPSWP_( __a__, __e__, __m__, __x__ )

#define atomic_fence( __a__, __x__ ) \\
({ _ATOMIC_FENCE_( __a__, __x__ ); })

EOF

echo impatomic.h type-generic macros fetch
for FNKEY in ${INT_OPERATIONS}
do
OPERATOR=${!FNKEY}

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#define atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}_explicit( __a__, __m__, __x__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_MODIFY_( __a__, ${OPERATOR}=, __m__, __x__ )

#define atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}( __a__, __m__ ) \\
_ATOMIC_MODIFY_( __a__, ${OPERATOR}=, __m__, memory_order_seq_cst )

EOF
done

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#endif

EOF

C++ Methods

The core functions are difficult to use, and so the proposal includes member function definitions that are syntactically simpler. The member operators are defined in the class definitions.

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus

EOF

echo impatomic.h methods ordinary basic
for TYPEKEY in bool address ${INTEGERS} ${CHARACTERS}
do
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

inline bool atomic_${TYPEKEY}::is_lock_free() const volatile
{ return false; }

inline void atomic_${TYPEKEY}::store
( ${TYPENAME} __m__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ atomic_store_explicit( this, __m__, __x__ ); }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_${TYPEKEY}::load
( memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_load_explicit( this, __x__ ); }

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_${TYPEKEY}::swap
( ${TYPENAME} __m__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_swap_explicit( this, __m__, __x__ ); }

inline bool atomic_${TYPEKEY}::compare_swap
( ${TYPENAME}& __e__, ${TYPENAME} __m__,
  memory_order __x__, memory_order __y__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_compare_swap_explicit( this, &__e__, __m__, __x__, __y__ ); }

inline bool atomic_${TYPEKEY}::compare_swap
( ${TYPENAME}& __e__, ${TYPENAME} __m__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_compare_swap_explicit( this, &__e__, __m__, __x__,
      __x__ == memory_order_acq_rel ? memory_order_acquire :
      __x__ == memory_order_release ? memory_order_relaxed : __x__ ); }

inline void atomic_${TYPEKEY}::fence
( memory_order __x__ ) const volatile
{ return atomic_fence( this, __x__ ); }

EOF
done

echo impatomic.h methods template basic
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

template< typename T >
inline bool atomic<T>::is_lock_free() const volatile
{ return false; }

template< typename T >
inline void atomic<T>::store( T __v__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ _ATOMIC_STORE_( this, __v__, __x__ ); }

template< typename T >
inline T atomic<T>::load( memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return _ATOMIC_LOAD_( this, __x__ ); }

template< typename T >
inline T atomic<T>::swap( T __v__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return _ATOMIC_MODIFY_( this, =, __v__, __x__ ); }

template< typename T >
inline bool atomic<T>::compare_swap
( T& __r__, T __v__, memory_order __x__, memory_order __y__ ) volatile
{ return _ATOMIC_CMPSWP_( this, &__r__, __v__, __x__ ); }

template< typename T >
inline bool atomic<T>::compare_swap
( T& __r__, T __v__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return compare_swap( __r__, __v__, __x__,
      __x__ == memory_order_acq_rel ? memory_order_acquire :
      __x__ == memory_order_release ? memory_order_relaxed : __x__ ); }

EOF

echo impatomic.h methods address fetch
TYPEKEY=address
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

inline void* atomic_address::fetch_add
( ptrdiff_t __m__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_fetch_add_explicit( this, __m__, __x__ ); }

inline void* atomic_address::fetch_sub
( ptrdiff_t __m__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_fetch_sub_explicit( this, __m__, __x__ ); }

EOF

echo impatomic.h methods integer fetch
for TYPEKEY in ${INTEGERS} ${CHARACTERS}
do
TYPENAME=${!TYPEKEY}

for FNKEY in ${INT_OPERATIONS}
do
OPERATOR=${!FNKEY}

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

inline ${TYPENAME} atomic_${TYPEKEY}::fetch_${FNKEY}
( ${TYPENAME} __m__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_fetch_${FNKEY}_explicit( this, __m__, __x__ ); }

EOF
done
done

echo impatomic.h methods pointer fetch
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

template< typename T >
T* atomic<T*>::load( memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return static_cast<T*>( atomic_address::load( __x__ ) ); }

template< typename T >
T* atomic<T*>::swap( T* __v__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return static_cast<T*>( atomic_address::swap( __v__, __x__ ) ); }

template< typename T >
bool atomic<T*>::compare_swap
( T*& __r__, T* __v__, memory_order __x__, memory_order __y__) volatile
{ return atomic_address::compare_swap( *reinterpret_cast<void**>( &__r__ ),
               static_cast<void*>( __v__ ), __x__, __y__ ); }
//{ return _ATOMIC_CMPSWP_( this, &__r__, __v__, __x__ ); }

template< typename T >
bool atomic<T*>::compare_swap
( T*& __r__, T* __v__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return compare_swap( __r__, __v__, __x__,
      __x__ == memory_order_acq_rel ? memory_order_acquire :
      __x__ == memory_order_release ? memory_order_relaxed : __x__ ); }

template< typename T >
T* atomic<T*>::fetch_add( ptrdiff_t __v__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_fetch_add_explicit( this, sizeof(T) * __v__, __x__ ); }

template< typename T >
T* atomic<T*>::fetch_sub( ptrdiff_t __v__, memory_order __x__ ) volatile
{ return atomic_fetch_sub_explicit( this, sizeof(T) * __v__, __x__ ); }

EOF

cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#endif

EOF

Implementation Header Cleanup

echo impatomic.h close namespace
cat <<EOF >>impatomic.h

#ifdef __cplusplus
} // namespace std
#endif

EOF

Standard Headers

The C standard header.

echo stdatomic.h
cat <<EOF >stdatomic.h

#include "impatomic.h"

#ifdef __cplusplus

EOF

for TYPEKEY in flag bool address ${INTEGERS} ${CHARACTERS}
do
cat <<EOF >>stdatomic.h

using std::atomic_${TYPEKEY};

EOF
done

cat <<EOF >>stdatomic.h

using std::atomic;
using std::memory_order;
using std::memory_order_relaxed;
using std::memory_order_acquire;
using std::memory_order_release;
using std::memory_order_acq_rel;
using std::memory_order_seq_cst;

#endif

EOF

The C++ standard header.

echo cstdatomic
cat <<EOF >cstdatomic

#include "impatomic.h"

EOF

Examples of Use

The following program shows example uses of the atomic types, in both C and C++. These examples also serve as tests for the interface definition.

echo n2427.c include
cat <<EOF >n2427.c

#include "stdatomic.h"

EOF

Flag

We show two uses, global functions with explicit memory ordering and member functions with implicit memory ordering.

echo n2427.c flag
cat <<EOF >>n2427.c

atomic_flag af = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT;

void flag_example( void )
{
    if ( ! atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit( &af, memory_order_acquire ) )
        atomic_flag_clear_explicit( &af, memory_order_release );
#ifdef __cplusplus
    if ( ! af.test_and_set() )
        af.clear();
#endif
}

EOF

Lazy Initialization

For lazy initialization, a thread that does not do initialization may need to wait on the thread that does. (Lazy initialization is similar to double-checked locking.) For this example, we busy wait on a boolean. Busy waiting like this is usually ill-advised, but it sufficies for the example. There are three variants of the example: one using strong C++ operators and methods, one using weak C functions, and one using fence-based C++ operators and methods.

echo n2427.c lazy
cat <<EOF >>n2427.c

atomic_bool lazy_ready = { false };
atomic_bool lazy_assigned = { false };
int lazy_value;

#ifdef __cplusplus

int lazy_example_strong_cpp( void )
{
    if ( ! lazy_ready.load() ) {
        /* the value is not yet ready */
        if ( lazy_assigned.swap( true ) ) {
            /* initialization assigned to another thread; wait */
            while ( ! lazy_ready.load() );
        }
        else {
            lazy_value = 42;
            lazy_ready = true;
        }
    }
    return lazy_value;
}

#endif

int lazy_example_weak_c( void )
{
    if ( ! atomic_load_explicit( &lazy_ready, memory_order_acquire ) ) {
        if ( atomic_swap_explicit( &lazy_assigned, true,
                                   memory_order_relaxed ) ) {
            while ( ! atomic_load_explicit( &lazy_ready,
                                            memory_order_acquire ) );
        }
        else {
            lazy_value = 42;
            atomic_store_explicit( &lazy_ready, true, memory_order_release );
        }
    }
    return lazy_value;
}

#ifdef __cplusplus

int lazy_example_fence_cpp( void )
{
    if ( lazy_ready.load( memory_order_relaxed ) )
        lazy_ready.fence( memory_order_acquire );
    else if ( lazy_assigned.swap( true, memory_order_relaxed ) ) {
        while ( ! lazy_ready.load( memory_order_relaxed ) );
        lazy_ready.fence( memory_order_acquire );
    }
    else {
        lazy_value = 42;
        lazy_ready.store( true, memory_order_release );
    }
    return lazy_value;
}

#endif

EOF

Integer

echo n2427.c integer
cat <<EOF >>n2427.c

atomic_ulong volatile aulv = { 0 };
atomic_ulong auln = { 1 };
#ifdef __cplusplus
atomic< unsigned long > taul CPP0X( { 3 } );
#endif

void integer_example( void )
{
    atomic_ulong a = { 3 };
    unsigned long x = atomic_load( &auln );
    atomic_store_explicit( &aulv, x, memory_order_release );
    unsigned long y = atomic_fetch_add_explicit( &aulv, 1,
                                                 memory_order_relaxed );
    unsigned long z = atomic_fetch_xor( &auln, 4 );
#ifdef __cplusplus
    // x = auln; // implicit conversion disallowed
    x = auln.load();
    aulv = x;
    auln += 1;
    aulv ^= 4;
    // auln = aulv; // uses a deleted operator
    aulv -= auln++;
    auln |= --aulv;
    aulv &= 7;
    atomic_store_explicit( &taul, 7, memory_order_release );
    x = taul.load( memory_order_acquire );
    y = atomic_fetch_add_explicit( & taul, 1, memory_order_acquire );
    z = atomic_fetch_xor( & taul, 4 );
    x = taul.load();
    // auln = taul; // uses a deleted operator
    // taul = aulv; // uses a deleted operator
    taul = x;
    taul += 1;
    taul ^= 4;
    taul -= taul++;
    taul |= --taul;
    taul &= 7;
#endif
}

EOF

Note that because taul is not a volatile variable, the compiler would be permitted to merge the last six statements.

Event Counter

An event counter is not part of the communication between threads, and so it can use faster primitives.

echo n2427.c event
cat <<EOF >>n2427.c

#ifdef __cplusplus

struct event_counter
{
    void inc() { au.fetch_add( 1, memory_order_relaxed ); }
    unsigned long get() { au.load( memory_order_relaxed ); }
    atomic_ulong au;
};
event_counter ec = { 0 };

void generate_events()
{
    ec.inc();
    ec.inc();
    ec.inc();
}

int read_events()
{
    return ec.get();
}

int event_example()
{
    generate_events(); // possibly in multiple threads
    // join all other threads, ensuring that final value is written
    return read_events();
}

#endif

EOF

An important point here is that this is safe, and we are guaranteed to see exactly the final value, because the thread joins force the necessary ordering between the inc calls and the get call.

List Insert

The insertion into a shared linked list can be accomplished in a lock-free manner with compare-and-swap, provided that compare-and-swap is lock-free. (Note that adding a correct "remove" operation is harder than it seems because removing it from the list does not imply that there will be no outstanding accesses, and thus any modification or deallocation of the node might constitute a race condition.)

In both of the following examples, a comparison failure in the compare-and-swap will update candidate->next with the current value of head.

echo n2427.c list
cat <<EOF >>n2427.c

#ifdef __cplusplus

struct data;
struct node
{
    node* next;
    data* value;
};

atomic< node* > head CPP0X( { (node*)0 } );

void list_example_strong( data* item )
{
    node* candidate = new node;
    candidate->value = item;
    candidate->next = head.load();
    while ( ! head.compare_swap( candidate->next, candidate ) );
}

void list_example_weak( data* item )
{
    node* candidate = new node;
    candidate->value = item;
    candidate->next = head.load( memory_order_relaxed );
    while ( ! head.compare_swap( candidate->next, candidate,
                                 memory_order_release, memory_order_relaxed ) );
}

#endif

EOF

Update

The best algorithm for updating a variable may depend on whether or not atomics are lock-free. In the example below, this update can be accomplished in a lock-free manner with compare-and-swap when atomic integrals are lock-free, but may require other mechanisms when atomic integrals are not lock-free. This example uses the feature macro to generate minimal code when the lock-free status is known a priori.

echo n2427.c update
cat <<EOF >>n2427.c

#if ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE <= 1
atomic_flag pseudo_mutex = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT;
unsigned long regular_variable = 1;
#endif
#if ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE >= 1
atomic_ulong atomic_variable = { 1 };
#endif

void update()
{
#if ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE == 1
    if ( atomic_is_lock_free( &atomic_variable ) ) {
#endif
#if ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE > 0
        unsigned long full = atomic_load( atomic_variable );
        unsigned long half = full / 2;
        while ( ! atomic_compare_swap( &atomic_variable, &full, half ) )
            half = full / 2;
#endif
#if ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE == 1
    } else {
#endif
#if ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE < 2
        __atomic_flag_wait__( &pseudo_mutex );
        regular_variable /= 2 ;
        atomic_flag_clear( &pseudo_mutex );
#endif
#if ATOMIC_INTEGRAL_LOCK_FREE == 1
    }
#endif
}

EOF

Main

echo n2427.c main
cat <<EOF >>n2427.c

int main()
{
}

EOF